Tayirbekov N.T., Romanova E.S. The role of religious holidays in the spiritual and moral education of the individual. Holidays and events in Russia

01.08.2019

Pramzdnik is a day of celebration established in honor or in memory of someone or something. Including, a day or a series of days celebrated by the church in memory of a religious event or a saint. Weekend, non-working day. A day of joy and celebration. Day of games and entertainment.

Social time can be divided into three types: everyday life (weekdays), weekends and holidays. Everyday life is a series of practices that are repeated from day to day. Weekends are regular breaks in the running of everyday life. Everyday life and weekends tend to become routinized. Most often, the main content of everyday life is work. Weekends are dominated by free time. In this free time, the schedule and content of nutrition can change, the individual can choose his own environment. It is believed that on weekends a person should restore his strength after working days.

The surviving rare literature, documentary sources testify that our ancestors, who lived hard, harshly, knew how to take their souls away in the festivities. Holidays were a time of necessary and meaningful rest, hours of explosive joy, a meeting with the unique Russian nature, its unforgettable beauty. Each month of this year gave people a reason to admire the meaning of life, to remember with respect the depths and old traditions.

Due to the fact that the holiday affirms the principle of rhythm (more precisely, the correspondence of the rhythms of a person, society and the cosmos), its formation as a special cultural phenomenon is inextricably linked with the formation of the idea of time and thus with the advent of the calendar. As noted, in particular, by the famous Polish scientist K. Zhigulsky, “time counting, one of the greatest achievements of human culture, the calendar, everywhere in its origins acts as a form of streamlining, fixing, and advance calculation of holidays and periods.”

National holidays are such a state when every minute you are in the epicenter of a hurricane: shows, contests, drawings, entertainment holiday programs based on the traditions of the country, its national customs, rituals.

The meaning of the holiday

A holiday is a special element in the structure of social time. The main function of the holiday is the socio-cultural integration of a particular community of people. Various holidays are carried out different types integration.

A festive performance of any level is built in the image of a family holiday, while attempts are made to strengthen the integration of sociocultural fields, to bring the rulers closer to the ruled, the head of state to the people. In general, to unite this or that social community.

The purpose of public holidays is to rally citizens around official leaders. Public holidays are of two levels: organized by the authorities themselves and individual. The second level is when a public holiday merges with an individual one and people arrange feasts. In the case of the first level, the holiday simply becomes an additional day off.

Religious holidays ensure the integration of all members of a given church around its leadership.

Holidays are also used by businesses that have the same goal as the government: to rally consumers around their brand. (e.g. Beer Festival)

Family holidays perform the function of uniting family members and relatives.

Consumption plays an important role in holiday rituals. It is expressed in a feast, gifts and special festive clothes. The formation of a consumer society turns business into a key participant in the festive discourse. A holiday is a marketing tool.

In addition, the holiday fulfills important function relaxation. The holiday makes a break in the routine life of a person.

The functions of the holiday as an integrator and stabilizer of the social system are directly related to the fact that it is essential element mechanism of tradition, plays a huge role in the preservation and transmission from generation to generation of socially significant information regarding the main value orientations and norms of behavior. Because of this, the holiday always acts as an extremely important factor socialization: it is through participation in festive ceremonies and rituals in all cultures that the primary familiarization with the norms and values \u200b\u200baccepted in a particular society occurs.

Holiday and culture

MM. Bakhtin once said that the holiday is the most important primary form of human culture. The specifics of a holiday as a cultural phenomenon: it reflects to the maximum extent both universal features, and features of various types of civilizations, and the unique specificity of a particular socio-cultural community. The significance of the holiday as the most important element of any civilizational system is determined primarily by the fact that it is one of the main mechanisms through which the action of such a key social integrator as the system of values is carried out. The system of value orientations and preferences formed in a particular cultural and civilizational context is based on the method chosen by a certain socio-cultural macro-community for solving fundamental problems - the contradictions of human existence: between the secular and sacred spheres of being, man and nature, the individual and society, traditional and innovative aspects of culture. . The central place is occupied by the problem of the relationship between the secular and sacred spheres of human existence. A holiday is a very special period of direct intense contact of these spheres, opposite in this sense to weekdays, when such direct contact is not observed. Moreover, this applies to any holiday, including, it would seem, a purely secular or even family holiday, limited by an intimate circle of close people. Many thinkers and researchers paid attention to this feature of the holiday as a cultural phenomenon.

The idea that the “affirmation of life” is one of the most significant moments of the “festive event” (H. Cox) was emphasized by many prominent researchers, both foreign and Russian (M. Eliade, H. Cox, A.I. Mazaev and etc.).

In a word, the festive culture is one of the components of the national culture, its roots go back to traditional culture, which remains its core and breeding ground for development. It is part of a common culture, located on the border of the sacred and profane worlds, the primary stage in the adoption of cultural innovations. It is an open system, although it exists as a separate cultural institution, where a whole set of its components is implemented.

Shemyakin Yakov Georgievich, Doctor of Historical Sciences

annotation

The elective course "Holiday as a historical and cultural phenomenon: the world of the ideal and the reality of power" is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of the holiday, which is considered, in accordance with the program position of M.M. Bakhtin, as “a very important primary form of human culture” (Bakhtin M.M. The work of Francois Rabelais and the folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - L., 1965, p. 11). In the last decades of the XX - early XXI centuries. "festive" culture has become the focus of attention of world scientific and philosophical thought, has become one of the key topics of both cultural and historical research. This is directly due to the fact that many representatives of the scientific community realize that the holiday plays an extremely important role both in the functioning of any of the local human cultures and in their global dialogue.

Goals and objectives of the course

The purpose of the special course is to give students a complete understanding of the phenomenon of the holiday, its role in the socio-cultural system. Objectives of the special course: to identify common, inherent in all traditions, universal features of this phenomenon; consider the main stages of the historical evolution of the "holiday" culture; to analyze its features in different types of civilizations, with a focus on carnival and carnivalized forms; compare in this context the Latin American, Western European, Spanish and Russian varieties of "holiday" culture; thereby contributing to the development of analytical thinking and the development of students' ability to creatively approach the topic under study. The peculiarity of this special course is that its subject matter allows convincingly illustrating a number of key issues in the history of culture with many vivid examples.

Course structure

The course is built in accordance with the problem-thematic and chronological principles. The course content is divided into four topics:

1) Holiday as a phenomenon of culture. General characteristics.

2) The main stages of the historical evolution of the "holiday" culture.

3) Features of the holiday in different types of civilizations. "Festive"

culture in "classical" and "frontier" civilizations.

4) Carnival and carnivalized forms of culture in comparative historical

context: Latin America - Russia - Spain - Western Europe.

Forms of control:

1. Oral current survey.

2. Abstract.

3. Diff.

Course content

Topic 1 . Holiday as a cultural phenomenon. general characteristics

The place of the holiday in the system of culture

Holiday as the most important "primary form of human culture" (MM Bakhtin). The specifics of a holiday as a cultural phenomenon: it reflects to the maximum extent both universal features, and features of various types of civilizations, and the unique specificity of a particular socio-cultural community. The significance of the holiday as the most important element of any civilizational system is determined primarily by the fact that it is one of the main mechanisms through which the action of such a key social integrator as the system of values is carried out. The system of value orientations and preferences formed in this or that cultural and civilizational context is based on the method chosen by a certain socio-cultural macro community for solving fundamental problems - the contradictions of human existence: between the secular and sacred spheres of being, man and nature, the individual and society, traditional and innovative aspects of culture. . The central place is occupied by the problem of the relationship between the secular and sacred spheres of human existence. A holiday is a very special period of direct intensive contact of these spheres, opposite in this sense to everyday life, when such direct contact is not observed. Moreover, this applies to any holiday, including, it would seem, a purely secular or even family holiday, limited by an intimate circle of close people. Many thinkers and researchers (E. Durkheim, M. Eliade and others) paid attention to this feature of the holiday as a cultural phenomenon.

Precisely because it is a period of direct intense contact between the secular and sacred spheres, every holiday ultimately affirms the principle of the correspondence of the rhythms of human life and society to the rhythms of the cosmos, providing such approval with a set of ritual and symbolic actions. Thus, a person makes a fundamental value choice - in favor of order, meaning, ultimately - life, the creative principle of the universe and, accordingly, against chaos, decay, death, entropy. The idea that the “affirmation of life” is one of the most significant moments of the “festive event” (H. Cox) was emphasized by many prominent researchers, both foreign and domestic (M. Eliade, H. Cox, A.I. Mazaev and etc.).

Due to the fact that the holiday affirms the principle of rhythm (more precisely, the correspondence of the rhythms of a person, society and the cosmos), its formation as a special cultural phenomenon is inextricably linked with the formation of the idea of time and thus with the advent of the calendar. As noted, in particular, by the well-known Polish scientist K. Zhigulsky, “counting time, one of the greatest achievements of human culture, the calendar, everywhere in its origins acts as a form of streamlining, fixing, and advance calculation of holidays and periods” (K. Zhigulsky. Holiday and Culture, Old and New Holidays, Reflections of a Sociologist, Moscow, 1985, p.

The appearance of the calendar was associated with the realization of the fact that the flow of time is heterogeneous in structure, certain nodal points are distinguished in it, corresponding to the transition from one stage of the evolution of nature (the cycle of seasons) or society to another. In the words of Bakhtin, "... festivities at all stages of their historical development were associated with major, turning points in the life of nature, society and man" (M. Bakhtin, op. cit., p. 12).

By affirming the principle of correspondence of rhythms, the holiday thus affirms the principle of harmony in all spheres of human existence. It always, one way or another, correlates with the world of the ideal, with the idea of the existence of some perfect dimension of being, qualitatively different from ordinary everyday reality, to which one can join only through participation in the holiday. The latter is, as a result, inextricably linked with utopia. There is every reason to talk about the utopian constant as a hallmark of holiday culture. Almost everyone who dealt with the problem of the holiday, starting with Bakhtin, wrote about this feature.

“Temporary exit to the utopian world” (M. Bakhtin) during the holiday period is associated with another of its characteristic features: a temporary rejection of the norms of behavior accepted in a particular society, the “reversal” of dominant social relations and hierarchies. Many well-known and famous researchers of festive culture (M. Bakhtin, M. Eliade, O. Paz, H. Cox, etc.) emphasized that a holiday is completely special condition the human world, associated with going beyond the existing socio-cultural order, when culture denies its own sanctioned norms and values. According to the vivid definition of O. Paz, this is “a dive into chaos, into the very element of life”, when “society frees itself from imposed norms, laughs at its gods, principles and laws – in short, abolishes itself”. (O. Paz. Poetry, Criticism, Erotica. - M., 1996, p. 25).

However, the utopian constant is only one side of holiday culture. There is another, which in many respects contradicts it: "neighborhood with the authorities." So, the domestic researcher A.I. Mazaev drew attention to the fact that the apparatus of religious and secular power usually "turns out to be located in approximately the same places as the holiday - on the sacred site" (A.I. Mazaev. Holiday as a socio-artistic phenomenon. - M., 1978, p. 71). For those in power everywhere and at all stages of history, the closest attention to the phenomenon of the holiday is typical, the desire to put it under their full control, to achieve through the holiday a total regulation of all aspects of human life and society. Due to the fact that the holiday essential part mechanism of social integration, it inevitably turns out to be included in the existing system of power.

Thus, the holiday turns out to be “internally antinomic” (A.I. Mazaev, op. cit., p. 31): on the one hand, it participates in the world of the ideal, utopia, affirms the principle of harmony; on the other hand, it is the most important element and stabilizing factor of the existing system of power.

The main functions of the holiday in the cultural system

Deep internal inconsistency holiday is also reflected in the fact that it performs in the sociocultural system two most important, contradictory and at the same time closely interconnected functions: ritual-participatory (in which the social-integrative potential of the holiday is manifested) and ritual-laughter (in which is reflected in the playful, grotesque and laughter beginning of the festive culture). Various types of holidays different eras in various cultures are characterized by a different ratio of distinguished functions: the predominance of one or the other determines the historical "face" of the holiday.

In principle holidays can be classified according to various features. Their classification in this special course is based on a functional criterion, namely, the relationship between ritual-participatory and ritual-laughter functions. The predominance of one or the other determines belonging to the participatory or ritual-laughter type. A classic example of the first type of holidays is religious, ranging from the celebration of the New Year in ancient Babylon to Christian Christmas, the second is carnival: from the Roman Saturnalia to the Latin American carnival.

Distinctive feature participatory holidays - the predominance of the mood, which can be characterized as "felt seriousness." This kind of psychological attitude is due to the feeling of familiarization with the highest values, belonging to the rhythms of the cosmos. Such an experience is associated with deep joy, however, this is a special "sacred" joy, not at all entertainment. Although the moment of entertainment is present here, it does not determine the main tone of the holiday.

In the carnival, the picture as a whole is directly opposite - the laughter element dominates. However, it must be borne in mind that "carnival" laughter also has a ritual character, "in it - in a significantly rethought form - ... the ritual mockery of the deity of the most ancient laughter rites is still alive" (M. Bakhtin, op. cit., pp. 15,16 ).

By virtue of its very nature, the participatory type, as a rule, is institutionalized to a much greater extent, while in the ritual and laughter variety, that feature of the festive culture that is associated with the “reversal” of the established order, the temporary violation of accepted norms, freedom from dominant values.

It should be emphasized that we are talking about the predominance of one of the functions: there are almost no holidays that are entirely reduced to either a ritual-participative or ritual-laughter principle. As a rule, even with the dominance of one of the parties, the second still continues to be present. At the same time, the ritual-laughter and ritual-participative functions can either be brought together, or divorced, or they can oppose each other within the framework of one or another variety of festive culture.

Holiday and laughter

For all the significance of other components of this culture, it should nevertheless be emphasized that a very special, key role in it is played by such a cultural and psychological phenomenon as laughter. This is directly due to the fact that the "zone of laughter" in the human community becomes a zone of contact. Here the contradictory and incompatible are united, it comes to life as a connection ”(M. Bakhtin, op. cit., p. 533). As the experience of history shows, laughter is one of the decisive factors contributing to overcoming huge, often spiritual distances between civilizational traditions that were originally alien to each other. Moreover, the role of laughter is greatest in that kind of holiday, which is characterized by the dominant ritual-laughter function - in the carnival. This circumstance determines the very significant significance of the holiday in general and the carnival in particular in the world dialogue of cultures.

Holiday and tradition

The functions of the holiday as an integrator and stabilizer of the social system are directly related to the fact that it is the most important element of the mechanism of tradition, plays a huge role in the preservation and transmission from generation to generation of socially significant information regarding the main value orientations and norms of behavior. Because of this, a holiday always acts as an extremely important factor in socialization: it is through participation in festive ceremonies and rituals in all cultures that the primary familiarization with the norms and values accepted in a particular society takes place.

The specifics of the relationship between the social and the individual in the festive culture

The holiday as a special state of the cultural system is characterized by a very definite relationship between the individual and society, the individual and the collective: the social element in the holiday prevails over the individual. Many human activities can be successfully carried out alone, but never celebrated. As he wrote, expressing the general point of view of the researchers of this phenomenon, K. Zhigulsky, “holidays and celebrations ... always require the presence, participation of other people, they are a joint action, a common experience (K. Zhigulsky, op. cit., p. 21).

Holiday as a social and aesthetic phenomenon

Everywhere the holiday also performs a specific socio-aesthetic function. “In the sphere of the holiday, aesthetic consciousness is born with its ability to appreciate the beautiful and cultivate the imagination, as well as a number of other abilities, including the ability to rejoice and laugh, which objectify themselves at first in syncretic actions, where dance, music, dramatic play, sports competition, etc. .P. are soldered to each other and do not yet claim independent significance - as art forms. (A.I. Mazaev, op. cit., p. 74). But even later, having stood out from the initially undivided syncretic whole, various types of art continue to influence the holiday and, in turn, are influenced by the festive element.

Theme 2 . The main stages of the historical evolution of the "holiday" culture

Ways of modeling time and stages of the evolution of the "holiday" culture

The holiday is inherent in all human communities - from primitive to modern. At the same time, a certain stage can be traced in the development of the phenomenon of the holiday. There are grounds to talk about one degree or another of the development of festive culture at various stages of social evolution. So, “about the appearance of quite definite, timed to coincide with exact dates we can only speak of holidays starting from the emergence of high cultures", however, they "contain all the elements of entertainment and entertainment that arose spontaneously in the bowels of primitive society... "(Yu. Lips. The origin of things. From the history of the culture of mankind. - M., 1954, p. 184).

It is possible to single out two historical macro-stages in the development of a holiday as a special cultural phenomenon, depending on what type of historical time the holiday reproduced and modeled.

The cyclical model of historical time is the basis of the holiday at the first, longest stage of its evolution. This situation fully corresponded to the dominance of the cyclic form of social movement in the vast majority of traditional societies. The festive culture at this stage is entirely determined by biocosmic cyclicity. All holidays, starting from primitive times and up to the emergence of the religion of the Old Testament prophets of Palestine, were structured according to the same scheme, characteristic of the mythological type of consciousness and attitude to the world. The content and essence of the holiday consisted in joining the sacred time of the myth, the time of the first creation, "primary objects and primary actions" (Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. - M., 1991, p. 252-253), when gods or cultural heroes were created the universe and all its components. This time is outside the "ordinary" time of human life, in fact, outside the real time of human history.

An entirely new type of festive consciousness began to take shape in ancient Palestine and finally took shape with the advent of Christianity on the historical arena. The idea of cyclic time was surpassed, the idea appeared that time had a beginning and would have an end, that is, in other words, a model of linear time arose. In Christianity, this model turned out to be closely connected with the idea of the Incarnation. Proceeding from the fact that God was incarnated, "accepted a historically determined human existence ... Christianity, in comparison with other religions, introduced a new content into the concept and the very knowledge of liturgical time, affirming the historicity of the person of Christ." For the believer, the Christian "liturgy unfolds in a certain historical time, consecrated by the incarnation of the Son of God" (M. Eliade. Sacred and mundane. - M., 1994, p. 50, 73).

Emergence on the basis of the Christian type of consciousness in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries. the phenomenon of a secular holiday that is not directly related to the church calendar and the institution of the church. Revolutionary holiday as a special kind of secular holiday.

Holiday on present stage historical development

The formation of ideas about historical time with its own dynamics and rhythm different from nature, leading to the emergence of a new dimension of festive culture, did not at all lead to the disappearance of the type of holiday that was associated with biocosmic cyclicity: this type (primarily holidays related to the change seasons) continued to exist in the future - up to the present day.

The modern stage of development of the holiday throughout the world is characterized by the contradictory coexistence of its varieties, based respectively on cyclic and linear models of time. The content of the first is determined by the natural and cosmic rhythms that determine the life of those human communities in which the legacy of the archaic plays a significant role. Linear historical time is the time of Christian and modern secular holidays.

Changing the nature of the ratio of ritual-participatory and ritual-laughter functions of the holiday as it historically evolves

Different historical stages in the development of festive culture are characterized by different correlations between ritual-comic and ritual-participatory functions. In archaic cultures, they are divorced as much as possible, “sacred seriousness” almost completely prevails, since any archaic holiday reproduces the sacred time of the first creation and, therefore, is, first of all, an act of participation in the sacred order of the universe (which, however, does not exclude ritual laughter as an obligatory, albeit not the main element of the holiday in this case). In the course of historical evolution, there was a tendency for the gradual convergence of ritual-participatory and ritual-laughter principles, which reaches its maximum in secular, especially revolutionary holidays of modern and modern times.

Although the holiday as a special cultural phenomenon is generally characterized by the predominance of the social principle over the individual, with the onset of the "modern era" a new universal trend begins to be observed: "the bifurcation of the once single festive culture", which is characterized by the inclusion in the content of this culture of "a personal, individualistic principle, earlier than it uncharacteristic, and at the same time the loss of national festivity, the collapse of integral sensuality. As a result, this lengthy process “has ... today, firstly, the complete nationalization of the holiday, turning it into an official parade celebration, and, secondly, the habitation of the holiday, or its intimization, which means that this form of culture goes to the other extreme. , into the sphere of domestic or intimate group life” (A.I. Mazaev, op. cit., p. 103). As J. Duvigno noted, some of the most famous French authors who wrote about the phenomenon of the holiday, technical innovations of the 80s. The twentieth century, especially video, in many ways contributed to the increase in the importance of the "intimate and domestic" sphere in the festive culture.

It must, however, be emphasized that the process of the "bifurcation" of the holiday was fully developed only in the West. In none of the other civilizational areas, one can speak of either complete nationalization, or, even more so, complete intimization in the sphere of festive culture, although both trends can be traced everywhere with varying degrees of clarity.

Theme 3 . Features of the holiday in different types of civilizations. "Festive" culture in "classical" and "frontier" civilizations

Civilizations of the "classical" and "border" type: criteria for distinguishing

"Festive" culture differs significantly in different types of civilizations. In principle, civilizations can be classified on a variety of grounds. The typology of civilizations used in this special course is based on the criterion of correlation between the principles (beginnings) of unity and diversity.

All civilizations are in one way or another heterogeneous, they consist of very different elements (cultural, ethnic, linguistic, etc.) and at the same time any of them is an integrity, unified with all the diversity of its components. But the ratio of unity and diversity, homogeneity and heterogeneity is fundamentally different in the great civilizations of the East and West, which can be conditionally designated as "classical", and in the civilizational communities of the "border" type. The appearance of the first determines the beginning of integrity, the One. This includes such social and cultural macrocommunities that have arisen on the basis of world religions (“subecumenes”, as defined by G.S. Pomerants), such as Western Christian, South Asian Indo-Buddhist, East Asian Confucian-Buddhist, Islamic. Subecumens have a solid foundation - a relatively monolithic religious value "foundation". Such integrity of the spiritual foundation does not mean uniformity: it can be represented by various numerous religious and ideological traditions. However, within the framework of each of the sub-ecumens, the diverse traditions belonging to it are united in their approach to solving the key problems of human existence.

The specificity of "border" civilizations, in contrast to the "classical", is determined by the dominant diversity, which prevails over unity. The latter, however, is also quite real. However, in this case, there is no whole, relatively monolithic spiritual foundation; the religious and civilizational foundation consists of several qualitatively different parts, the connection between which is extremely weak or absent altogether. As a result, the entire civilizational structure is extremely unstable. Hellenistic and Byzantine historically belonged to the number of civilizations of the "border" type. Of the really existing to this day, such civilizational communities include the Ibero-European, Balkan, Russian-Eurasian and Latin American.

The predominance of diversity over unity is directly due to the fact that the reality of "frontier" civilizations is the reality of a constant and extremely contradictory interaction of qualitatively different traditions and different-stage layers of the people's historical existence separated by hermeneutic barriers. In this case, not just one “Big Idea” (which can be presented in a variety of variants), penetrating everything, cementing the diversity of the elements that make up civilization (ethnic, cultural, linguistic), but the very interaction of heterogeneous principles acts as an archetype underlying at the heart of the sociocultural system. An archetype of this kind appears in this case not as the result of interaction, which has become its invariant factor, "cast" into certain stable symbolic forms, but as a process of interaction.

The main manifestations of the specifics of the civilizational system in the festive culture of "classical" and "border" civilizations

In "classical" civilizations, the historical appearance of the holiday determines the very beginning of unity, the very "Big Idea" that permeates the entire civilizational system. In civilizations of the "frontier" type, the holiday, like all spheres of the "frontier" reality, is the most complex knot of interaction between heterogeneous traditions. It presents all three main varieties of such interaction: confrontation, symbiosis and synthesis of cultures. Examples (see: Ya.G. Shemyakin. Europe and Latin America: the interaction of civilizations in the context of world history, M., Nauka, 2001).

The “borderline” and “classical” civilizations are characterized by a fundamentally different correlation of interaction systems (which are subsystems of the civilizational macrosystem) “worldly-sacred”, “man-nature”, “individual-society”, “tradition-innovation”. In the civilizational “borderland”, the absence of a monolithic spiritual and value foundation inevitably gives more scope for natural elements than in “classical” civilizations (both inside and outside a person and society). The most striking illustration here is the riot of the vital elements of the Latin American holiday, especially the carnival, which is a genuine "festival of instincts" (A. Lundqvist).

The specific role of the natural factor in the civilizational systems of the “frontier” type is directly related to the fact that such systems are “embodied anxiety of the border” (Hegel) not only between civilizational traditions of different character, but also between civilization as a special way of human existence and barbarism. Here there is a direct parallel between the phenomena of civilizational "borderline" and the holiday in its historical incarnation, in which it appears as a "dive into chaos" (O. Paz), is a period of temporary rejection of the foundations of the existing social order. However, if in the conditions of "classical" civilizations this kind temporary disorder acts as a means of strengthening and updating the order, the existing normativity, the system of values, i.e. of the One that cements the foundation of civilization, the situation is different in the civilizational “borderland”.

A much more significant (compared to "classical" civilizations) role of chaos in the functioning of "borderline" civilizational systems. “Borderline” reality as “chaocosmos” (V.N. Ilyin). In the conditions of "frontier" civilizations, the common feature of this civilizational type is especially strongly manifested in the phenomenon of the holiday - constant balancing on the verge of barbarism. Moreover, the holiday acts as one of the main forms within which such balancing is carried out.

A direct consequence of the presence of a single religious and value base in every “classical” civilization is ontological balance, due to which the idea of measure comes to the fore in the system of values. This trend manifested itself with particular force within the framework of the direction of civilizational development, which is represented by the line "antiquity - Europe". The concept of measure in the Western tradition is inextricably linked with the idea of a norm in which laws are embodied (governing both the natural world and the human world), as well as harmony, which is possible only if the principles of measure and norm are implemented.

In the "borderline" civilizations, a completely different approach to the problem of measure (and, accordingly, to the concepts of norm and harmony) dominates, due to the lack of ontological balance, which, in turn, is due to the absence of a monolithic religious and value foundation. At the heart of the spiritual structure of the "borderline" communities lies the idea of constantly crossing the line of measure as a way of being, going beyond the limits set for a person, the idea of the reality of the "borderline" civilization as something fundamentally opposite to the norm.

Since a holiday is always going beyond the existing norms, and in this case there is a direct structural parallel between the phenomena of a holiday and civilizational “borderline”.

The isomorphism of the structure of civilization of the "border" type to the holiday as a special historical and cultural phenomenon.

The contradiction between the "spirit of the holiday" and the "spirit of capitalism" (formal rationality). A clash in the civilizational "borderland" of different types of rationality - formal rationality of Western origin and character and value rationality based on local civilizational traditions. A holiday in the conditions of "border" civilizations as one of the main arenas of this clash.

Theme 4 . Carnival and carnivalized forms of culture in a comparative historical context: Latin America - Russia - Spain - Western Europe

Festive culture of "frontier" civilizations on a planetary scale: the origins of significant differences with the similarity of the main structural parameters

The place and role of "frontier" civilizations on a planetary scale - Russia and Latin America - in world history: in them with the greatest force the general characteristics of the civilizational “borderland” were revealed, including the special, key importance of the festive culture in the context of the dominant diversity in the sociocultural system. "Carnival face" of Latin America in the world dialogue of cultures. The contrast in this regard with Russia: significant differences in the festive culture of both "frontier" civilizations on a planetary scale, despite the identity of a number of fundamental structural parameters. The reason: different cultural phenomenology, first of all, significant differences in the approach to the phenomenon of the holiday of those varieties of Christianity that constituted the most significant part of the spiritual and value base, respectively, of Latin American and Russian civilizations: Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The conditionality of these differences is the fundamental discrepancy between the Catholic and Orthodox pictures of the world.

The defining feature of the Catholic worldview: the tendency to divide being “not in two (“light” and “darkness”), but into three: between the mountainous region of the supernatural, blessed and the underworld region of the unnatural, for the time being, lives according to its own laws, although under the rule of God, the region natural…

Russian spirituality divides the world not into three, but into two – a lot of light and a lot of darkness… God’s and Antichrist’s come close to each other, without any buffer territory between them: everything that seems to be earth and earth is in fact either Paradise or Hell ... "(S.S. Averintsev. Byzantium and Russia: two types of spirituality // New world, 1988, No. 9, p. 234-235).

The specifics of the status and functions of the carnival in Western Europe

It is the tendency to "divide the world into three" that explains the status and main function of carnival in Western Europe: temporary - for a very specific calendar period - overturning existing social hierarchies, social "top" and "bottom", temporary - for the same period - the abolition of dominant values and norms, a strictly dosed admission of chaos in order to "drop" the tensions accumulated in the socio-cultural system and thereby strengthen the essential opposite of chaos - the order, the embodiment of which was the existing socio-cultural system. In the picture of the world of Western Catholicism, carnival (as, indeed, any holiday) belongs to the sphere of "natural", actually earthly existence. Two sides of the carnival in the interpretation of M.M. Bakhtin: the key significance of the sensual, bodily beginning and at the same time - the connection with higher, sacred meanings.

Peculiarities of Attitude to Laughter in the Russian Civilizational Tradition

In Russia, the desire to "divide the world in two" ("the lot of light" and "the lot of darkness", "God's" and "Satanic") led to the predominance of the tendency in Orthodox spirituality to attribute the beginning of laughter to the "lot of darkness". The works of the largest domestic scientists (A. Panchenko, Yu. Lotman, B. Uspensky, S. Averintsev) confirm this conclusion.

The Institute of the Fools as one of vivid manifestations specifics of the Orthodox civilizational area. Byzantine origins of the attitude to laughter in Russian Orthodoxy.

The consequence of evaluating laughter and fun as a manifestation of the sinful nature of a person (or in general as an expression of the satanic principle): extremely unfavourable conditions for the development in Russia of that type of holiday, which was characterized by the predominance of the "ritual and laughter" function. The decisive exclusion of laughter from the sphere of holiness by the Eastern Christian orthodoxy (and, consequently, taking into account the tendency to “divide the world in two”, classifying it as a satanic sphere) made it impossible for carnival to develop in any way in Russia (and then in Russia). At the same time, the need for a "ritual-comic" beginning was exceptionally great due to the very nature of Russian civilization as a "border" one. The lack of ontological balance due to the heterogeneity of the spiritual and value base and, as a result, the constant balancing of the civilizational system on the verge of chaos led to the fact that the said need manifested itself in the civilizational “borderland” (and especially in Russia) much more strongly than in the great “classical » Civilizations of the West and the East. She came to Russian conditions in a clear contradiction with the Orthodox tradition of the Byzantine origin, referring the "laughter" world to the "lot of darkness." This created an extremely tense spiritual situation in the emerging civilizational cosmos of Russia - Russia. The emergence of a situation best described by S.S. Averintseva: “Laughing, in fact, is impossible, but not laughing - there are no forces” (S.S. Averintsev. Collected Works. Connection of Times. - Kyiv, 2005, p. 363).

The resolution of this contradiction as one of the necessary conditions for the final formation of Russian civilization. An attempt at such a resolution was the emergence of a special cultural phenomenon that can be characterized as "carnivalized forms", that is, such cultural forms that have certain signs and characteristics of carnival, but not the whole set of such signs and characteristics; such forms express the idea of carnival in part, not in full. The very fact of the appearance of such forms and their preservation in the civilizational space of Russia is evidence of the strength and depth of the need for a “ritual-comic” beginning.

The irreducibility of the Orthodox spiritual heritage to the mystical-ascetic tradition, for which the “anti-laughter” tendency was most characteristic. The specifics of the attitude towards laughter of representatives of the Cyril and Methodius tradition and their differences from the mystical-ascetic trend that dominated official Orthodoxy.

The main cultural and historical factors that contributed to the preservation and reproduction of the "laughter" world of Ancient Russia: a relatively tolerant (compared to Byzantine orthodoxy) attitude towards laughter (as one of the integral manifestations of the "earthly" human reality) of supporters of the Cyril and Methodius tradition; persisting (despite all attempts by the state-supported official church to eradicate them) living pagan-mythological roots of Russian culture.

Symbol and Allegory: Peculiarities of Their Correlation in Different Varieties of Carnival and Carnivalized Forms of Culture

Attributing the carnival and / or the cultural forms corresponding to it (as well as the entire “laughter” world) to fundamentally various areas existence also causes significant differences in the construction of its sign system. Symbol and allegory: the content of concepts and their relationship (according to H. G. Gadamer). The concept of symbolization level. Comparison in this context of Latin American, Western and Russian realities. A higher level of symbolization in comparison with the West in the civilizational "borderland", primarily in the "borderline" civilizations of a planetary scale - Russia and Latin America. Reasons: the essential role of the archaic layers of culture in the civilizational system and the pronounced antinomy of consciousness and being.

Place, function and general style of the Spanish carnival. The decisive influence of the general Catholic tendency to "divide being into three" and, in connection with this, the attribution of the carnival to the sphere of "natural". Common features and differences in comparison with the classical model of the Western European carnival, studied by Bakhtin mainly on French materials. The results of the impact of the Spanish carnival on the Latin American varieties of this cultural phenomenon: a relatively more significant role than in Russia (but less than in the West) of allegory in the symbolic system of culture; a high level of theatricalization in the organization of festivities (including church ones).

The decisive role of Francis of Assisi and his followers in the formation of a relatively tolerant attitude to the beginning of laughter (and, accordingly, to the holiday in its carnival forms) throughout the area of Catholic culture. The absence of any analogues of the "Franciscan coup" (S.S. Averintsev) in the Orthodox cultural area.

The presence in Russian culture, in addition to the orthodox Byzantine tradition, of another important “factor of seriousness”: the ritual “play in earnest” in archaic festive rites (primarily Yuletide and Maslenitsa), dating back to the East Slavic pagan mythological heritage.

A direct relationship between "severity level" and symbolization level. The dynamics of the change in the relationship between symbol and allegory in Russian history: from an almost total symbolization of the spiritual order in the era of Moscow pre-Petrine Russia to a noticeable increase in the importance of allegory in the era of Petrine reforms and subsequently in St. Petersburg Russia, and then to a new sharp increase in the level of symbolization in the period revolution and the first post-revolutionary years. The preservation of a generally high level of symbolization throughout the main part of the Soviet period of history up to the 70s. 20th century A new decline in the level of symbolization at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries.

Latin American carnival and carnivalized forms of Russian culture in the context of comparison with the Western model of carnival

Significantly less than in the West, the role of the rational principle and, accordingly, significantly big role the beginning of the elemental, primarily the elements of human sensibility, as a consequence of the key importance of the archaic component of culture, as well as high degree antinomy - common features of both the Latin American carnival and Russian carnivalized forms.

Precisely because carnival laughter as an element manifests itself in the region south of the Rio Grande del Norte and in the expanses of Northern Eurasia with particular force, the desire of those in power to put this element under their control is especially pronounced here.

The specificity of the ratio of rational and spontaneous principles in the "borderline" civilizations of a planetary scale as a decisive factor in changing the hierarchy of functions performed by the carnival and related forms in the cultural system: the main thing is not the function of stabilizing the existing sociocultural order through its own opposite - "dosed" chaos, allowed (in strictly defined time frame) during the holiday period. Of all the many faces of carnival, one comes to the fore both in the Latin American and in the Russian context: the ritual of passage. Accordingly, the function of providing transition conditions becomes the main one.

However, the content of the transition process in Russia and in Latin America is significantly different. In the Latin American case, we are talking about the creation of a new cultural reality as a result and in the process of interaction of heterogeneous principles and traditions; those. about the rise of a new civilization.

Carnivalized forms of culture in Russian history: main varieties

An analysis of Russian realities leads to the conclusion that there are two qualitatively different varieties of carnivalized forms in Russia, each of which has its own type of transition ritual. The first of them can be attributed to such holidays organically grown from the local soil, directly and directly related to the agrarian-calendar cycle, such as Christmas time and Shrovetide. The experience of interaction between pre-Christian and Christian layers was embodied in them to the greatest extent, archaic roots are most clearly visible. This, as many researchers have noted, is indeed folk holidays that performed in Russia, including the compensatory function of a certain counterbalance to the hypertrophy of the state. Acting as rituals of the transition from winter to spring (and - in connection with this - the constant cyclic renewal of life), Christmas time and Shrove Tuesday have played the role of a powerful life-affirming factor in Russian culture and in the life of the Russian people for many centuries.

The essence of the second of the main carnivalized forms that can be seen in the history of Russia is best expressed by the term “carnivals of power”. The main content of this phenomenon is that the authorities usurp carnival symbols, language, ways of behavior and self-expression in order to establish total control over society in the context of the transition from one stage of civilizational development to another. As emphasized by N.A. Berdyaev (and after him many other authors), in the conditions of Russia, such a transition invariably acquired the character of a cardinal breakdown of the existing socio-cultural system, which led to a break in the line historical continuity. In such a situation, the authorities used laughter and carnival forms associated with it as a tool to discredit the old order and its supporters and to establish a new model of human community, imposed from above as a universally binding one.

Examples of "carnivals of power" in Russian history: the activities and behavior of Ivan the Terrible, the "reform of fun" of Peter I, Stalin's "carnival of power". The presence of essentially similar phenomena in other cultural environments (primarily in Latin America). However, in Russian history, the phenomenon of “carnivals of power” manifested itself with the greatest force and clarity.

Questions for offset

The place of the holiday in the system of culture.
Ritual and participatory function of the holiday.
Ritual-comic function of the holiday.
The main historical stages in the development of "holiday" culture.
Symbol and allegory: their relationship in various types of celebration.
Utopian constant of "holiday" culture.
Holiday and power.
Features of the holiday in the great "classical" civilizations.
The specificity of the "holiday" culture in civilizations of the "border" type.
"Classic" model of the Western European carnival (according to M.M. Bakhtin).
Latin American carnival: main characteristics.
"Festive" culture of Spain: its main features.
Maslenitsa and Christmas time: their role in the history of Russian culture.
"Carnival" features in the historical appearance and historical practice of Ivan Grozny.

"Fun Reform" of Peter I.
Stalin's "carnival of power".

Essay topics

The ratio of paganism and Christianity in Russian folk holidays.
The role of laughter in intercultural communication.
Holiday as a sphere of intercivilizational interaction.
"Carnivals of power" in Russia and Latin America: comparative characteristics.
Orthodox holidays.
Christmas and Easter: their role in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions.
Holiday in the age of the Internet.

Literature

Main

Averintsev S.S.. Bakhtin and the Russian Attitude to Laughter // Collected Works. Connection of times, p. 360–465.

Averintsev S.S.. Bakhtin, laughter, Christian culture// Collected works. Connection of times. - Kyiv, 2005, p. 342–259.

Averintsev S.S.. Byzantium and Russia: two types of spirituality // Novy Mir, 1988, no. 9, p. 227–239.

*Bakhtin M.M. Creativity of Francois Rabelais and folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1990.

Bolshakova O.V., Zitser E. The Transfigured Kingdom: Sacred Parodies and Charismatic Power at the Court of Peter the Great // Social and Humanitarian Sciences. Series 5. History. 2006, no. 2, p. 43–47.

Defurno M. Everyday life Spain's Golden Age. - M., 2004.

Ionov I.N.. Russian civilization IX - the end of the XX century. - M., 2003.

Ionov I.N.. Russian civilization and the origins of its crisis. IX - the beginning of the XX century. - M., 1994.

* Zhigulsky K. Holiday and culture. Holidays old and new. Reflections of a sociologist. M., 1985.

*Likhachev D.S. Laughter in Ancient Russia // Selected Works in 3 vols. - L., 1987, v. 2.

Likhachev D.S., Panchenko A.M."Laughing World" of Ancient Russia. - M., 1976.

Lotman Y., Uspensky B. New aspects of studying the culture of Ancient Russia // Questions of Literature, 1977, No. 3, p. 154–163.

* Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia in 2 vols. - M., 1987.

Panchenko A.M.. Russian culture on the eve of Peter's reforms. - L., 1984.

Pass. O. Poetry. Criticism. Erotica. - M., 1996.

Holiday as a phenomenon of Ibero-American culture. Materials of the discussion // Latin America, 1997, no. 11–12.

*Propp V.Ya. Problems of comedy and laughter. - M., 1976.

Propp V.Ya. Russian agricultural holidays (Experience of historical and ethnographic research). - M., 2004.

Rashkovsky E.B.. Orthodox holidays. - M., 2008.

Khrenov N.A.. "Man playing" in Russian culture. - St. Petersburg, 2005.

Shangina I.I. Russian people. Weekdays and holidays. Encyclopedia. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

Shemyakin Ya.G. Europe and Latin America: The Interaction of Civilizations in the Context of World History. - M., 2001.

Shemyakin Ya.G. Latin American holiday as a subject of civilizational research // Latin America, 2001, no. 11, p. 43–61.

Shemyakin Ya.G., Shemyakina O.D. Latin American carnival and carnivalized forms of Russian culture: an attempt to compare // Latin America, 2008, no. 5, p. 62–77; No. 6, p. 53–69.

* Eliade M. A History of Faith and Religious Ideas: From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity. - M., 2009.

Eliade M. Sacred and mundane. - M., 1994.

Iberica Americans. A holiday in Ibero-American culture. - M., 2002.

Additional

* Berdyaev N.A. The origins and meaning of Russian communism. - M., 1990.

Bogdanov K.A. About crocodiles in Russia. Essays on the history of borrowings and exoticisms. - M., 2006.

Byzantine legends. - L., 1972.

*Gadamer H.G. Truth and method. Fundamentals of philosophical hermeneutics. - M., 1988.

Guillou A. Byzantine civilization. - Yekaterinburg, 2005.

Gromov M.N., Milkov V.V.. Ideological currents of ancient Russian thought. - St. Petersburg, 2001.

Ivanov S.A. Blissful obscenities. Cultural history of foolishness. - M., 2005.

Ilyin V.N. Essay on Russian culture. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

*Kondakov I.V. Introduction to the history of Russian culture. - M., 1997.

Kofman A.F.. Latin American artistic image of the world. - M., 1997.

Lips Yu. Origin of things. From the history of human culture. - M., 1954.

*Lossky N.O. Favorites. - M., 1991.

Lossky N.O. Character of the Russian people. Book. 1–2. - M., 1990.

Milkov V.V.. Cyril and Methodius tradition and its difference from other ideological and religious trends // Ancient Russia: the intersection of traditions. - M., 1997, p. 327–370.

Morozov I.A., Sleptsova I.S. Game circle. Holiday and game in the life of the North Russian peasant (XIX-XX centuries). - M., 2004.

Rodnyanskaya I.B., Koks H.G. Festival of jesters. Theological essay on festivals and fantasies // Modern Concepts cultural crisis in the West. - M., 1976.

Silunas V. Spanish theater of the XVI-XVII centuries. - M., 1995.

Smirnov I.P. Old Russian laughter and the logic of the comic // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. Institute of Russian Literature. - L., 1977, v. 32.

Comparative the study of civilizations. Reader. - M., 1998.

Frankfort G., Frankfort G.A., Wilson J., Jacobsen T. On the threshold of philosophy. Spiritual Quest ancient man. - M., 1984.

*Shemyakin Ya.G. History of world civilizations. XX century. - M., 2001.

Books marked with *) are available in the Phystech library. Most of the other works listed in the list of recommended literature can be found on the Internet.

A caveat is needed here. The prevailing trend of the civilizational development of the Iberian Europe from the 2nd half of the twentieth century. there was a trend towards integration into a single Western subecumene. However, this process is still far from complete, and there is a counter-trend that opposes it.

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ATkeeping

The holiday phenomenon is one of the most stable elements of the cultural continuum, "the primary form of human culture" (MM Bakhtin). However, the holiday never belonged to any one synchronous section of culture, it always permeated this section vertically, coming from the past and leaving for the future. The existence of a holiday is determined by the semantic field of the culture in which it exists. In festive types of life activity, behavior and consciousness, socially subjective moments of the life of society take shape and acquire relative independence (the holiday accumulates and refracts the philosophical, social searches of the era, reflects the changing relationship between the individual and society, etc.). The development of culture not only does not remove, but even more actualizes the question of the meaning of the holiday.

Modern holiday culture is a bizarre symbiosis of various types and genres of the holiday. The festive text is arbitrarily composed of layers of various semiotic systems: the ideas of both masquerade and carnival cultures, and the tradition of dressing up, etc. are widely used. The festive element combines elements of both Christian (Christmas, Easter, etc.) and pre-Christian pagan holidays (Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala Day), fragments of "Soviet" customs and rituals (May 1, November 7) and fundamentally new forms (film festivals, presentations, shows, etc.). Along with this, contacts with previously unfamiliar customs and traditions are expanding, which has found expression in the celebration of Tatiana's Day, St. Valentine's Day, Halloween, and Catholic Christmas.

The diversity in the "holiday offer" market indicates that the holiday is looking for new mechanisms for its implementation and can be considered as the next stage of its evolution, and, consequently, as a new era in its comprehension.

Meaningholidayhowgroundsandformsbeing

The holiday phenomenon is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be interpreted as a simple mechanical sum of terms. Here, these terms are in interaction and are closely intertwined with each other. It is impossible to penetrate into the essence of the holiday and explain its role in culture and social life, guided by any single principle. Absorbing the experience of culture and art, the holiday appears as a complex synthesis, using various types of artistic activity in its own way.

The holiday has been the subject of scientific study more than once. Considerable experience has been accumulated in this, but it is scattered across various branches of knowledge: ethnography, folklore, art criticism, sociology, cultural theory, as well as in the experience creative workers- directors of mass theatrical performances, theater critics, designers, etc. However, there are no complete and exhaustive answers to such fundamental questions as the essence of the holiday, its place and role in the development of culture and art, its connection with other aspects of public life - yet. Therefore, the need for theoretical work on the holiday is relevant today.

Research interest in the phenomenon of the holiday arises in domestic science in the 30s of the 19th century. I. M. Snegirev was the first to formulate a theoretical definition of the holiday and was able to characterize some of its essential moments. His work "Russian Folk Holidays and Superstitious Rites" (1837) contains relatively accurate and very vivid characteristics of folk holidays, as well as a presentation of their aesthetic and sociological problems. The merit of Snegirev is also that he associated the holiday not with one of the types of labor activity, not with one of the sides of the spiritual world of people, but with the people's worldview and life in general.

Work in this direction (let us conditionally designate it as empirical-descriptive) was continued by A. P. Sakharov, A. V. Tereshchenko and others. They created multi-volume works on Russian holidays, but the general theory of the holiday is not revealed in them. The weak side of these works is a shallow philosophical level, the priority of the empirical principle, descriptiveness, and the strong side is the detail, rich factual material, clarity, thoroughness in the study of individual festivities. Snegirev and his followers for the first time drew attention to the essential relationship of holidays to free time and time in general. Feast days, named after saints or events of the church calendar, were interpreted by them as designating periods of time calculation in accordance with those calendar cycles that are inherent in nature itself, in the change of seasons. Related to this is the attempt made by Snegirev to periodize holiday types by season, which subsequently formed the basis of the cyclical concept of the holiday. The creation of a general theory of the holiday was first undertaken by a group of scientists representing the mythological trend in folklore. This group included A. N. Afanasiev, F. I. Buslaev, A. A. Potebnya. Supporters of the mythological trend based on the "solar" concept tried to typify the festivities in their own way in accordance with the theoretical assumption that people view nature as a struggle between summer and winter. According to this typology, the originality of folk holidays and festive rituals is subject to the division of the year into summer and winter cycles, and spring appears as the threshold of summer, and autumn - winter. The order of holidays throughout the year proceeds in the form of an ascending curve from Christmas to Ivan Kupala and a descending curve from Ivan Kupala to Christmas. These curves form not four, as Snegirev believed, but a two-cycle festive calendar of the year, in which the summer and winter solstice are the strong points. By this, the supporters of the mythological direction recognized a certain ideological independence of the holiday as a phenomenon of spiritual culture, its relative independence from the labor process. They recorded not only the connection of this phenomenon with the life of nature, but also pointed out the attachment of holidays to turning points, crisis moments of nature.

Representatives of the subsequent direction in folklore, the so-called school of borrowing, which was represented by E. V. Anichkov, A. N. Veselovsky, V. F. Miller, brought the study of Russian folk festivals out of the framework of national isolation, showed the similarity of ancient, Byzantine, Slavic and Romanian rituals. - spectacular forms. From this similarity, not entirely correct conclusions are drawn. Thus, Veselovsky believed that Russian Christmastide is nothing but Roman Saturnalia, passed through myths to buffoons and transmitted through them from Byzantium to Romanians and Russians. Supporters of this school also focused on the most general, mainly aesthetic and cultural features of the traditional holiday, expressing a number of interesting ideas and observations.

In polemics with various kinds of mythological concepts, the so-called "labor" theory of the holiday, characteristic of Soviet ethnographic science, took shape. It is based on the social and labor activity of a person, considered as the main and only source of the holiday, its calendar and ritual forms. An adherent of this theory is V. I. Chicherov, for whom the connection between the holiday and labor is decisive. In the work "The winter period of the Russian agricultural calendar of the XVI - XIX centuries." the author analyzes many meaningful aspects of the Russian agricultural holiday. The weak point of this concept is that all other types of festivities are outside the scope of this theory.

A variation of the "labor" theory is the concept of V. Ya. Propp, according to which: 1) folk holidays are based on mythology; 2) ritual-spectacular forms of the holiday are characterized by magical content; 3) festive rituals, entertainment and games are a kind of model of everyday peasant labor, a holiday is a kind of continuation of labor, a free repetition of the skills, customs, and relationships that have developed in labor.

The "labor" theory of a holiday is in many respects similar to the recreational concept, which explains the origin, calendar and content of holidays as an alternation of the rhythms of work and rest, as a response to the need for rest (N. O. Mizov, S. T. Tokarev).

Conceptually, the theory of M. M. Bakhtin, set forth in the book "The Creativity of Francois Rabelais and the Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance", is presented most clearly today. According to this theory, the holiday does not just duplicate labor, summing up the results of the labor cycle and preparing the participants of the holiday for a new phase. working life, but what is especially important, it constantly proclaims the people's ideal of life, with which it is associated from the very beginning. A holiday, according to Bakhtin, is not just an artistic reproduction or reflection of life, but life itself, designed in a playful way and, therefore, associated with human culture. But the holiday represents and embodies it in a very different way than does labor that produces material things, or artistic activity, focused on the creation of works of art. Without denying the connection of the holiday with either labor activity or art, this concept draws attention to the special social and artistic specificity of this phenomenon, which is on the border of art and reality. Bakhtin also gives an example of a concrete historical interpretation of the carnival as a holiday: firstly, as a manifestation of the two-world nature of medieval life (official and popular); secondly, as a "second life of the people", as a situation of lifting prohibitions, a temporary exit beyond the normal order of life; thirdly, as a special ideal-real type of communication between people; fourthly, as a moment of temporary, but from this no less significant victory of "laughter and material bodily bottom"; fifthly, "unofficial popular truth" over the official high, sublime, but super-mercenary and one-sided idea of "above". Bakhtin essentially laid the foundation for considering the holiday as a culturological phenomenon, identified the most stable features and categories of this many-sided phenomenon ("holiday time", "holiday space", "holiday worldview", "holiday freedom", "holiday laughter").

Etymologically, the word "holiday" itself is borrowed from Church Slavonic and goes back to the Old Russian "empty", which means "empty, that is, free, unoccupied, in other words, idle"

V. I. Dahl's etymological sequence is as follows: "idle, about a place, space, unoccupied, empty; to celebrate, to be idle, or not to do, not to work." Dal interprets the holiday itself as "a day dedicated to rest, not business, not work, the opposite of everyday life, a day celebrated according to the charter of the church or on an occasion related to the locality, to the face"

Thus, the word "holiday" means a certain period of time when one does not do business. It characterizes such free time when something is celebrated, for example, a certain event that needs to be distinguished from the stream of other events. The latter is achieved in a festive rite, ritual, that is, in a certain symbolic action.

In Russian science, this interpretation of the holiday goes back to Snegirev. “The very word holiday,” he wrote, “expresses abolition, freedom from everyday work, combined with fun and joy. A holiday is free time, a rite is a significant action, an accepted way of performing solemn actions; the latter is contained in the first”

Mainfunctionsholidayinsystemculture

The deep internal inconsistency of the holiday is also reflected in the fact that it performs two most important, contradictory and at the same time closely interconnected functions in the sociocultural system: ritual-participative (in which the social-integrative potential of the holiday is manifested) and ritual-laughter (in which the playful, grotesque and laughter beginning of the festive culture is reflected). Different types of holidays in different eras in various cultures are characterized by a different ratio of distinguished functions: the predominance of one or the other determines the historical "face" of the holiday.

In principle, holidays can be classified according to various criteria. Their classification in this special course is based on a functional criterion, namely, the relationship between ritual-participatory and ritual-laughter functions. The predominance of one or the other determines belonging to the participatory or ritual-laughter type. A classic example of the first type of holidays is religious, ranging from the celebration of the New Year in ancient Babylon to Christian Christmas, the second is carnival: from the Roman Saturnalia to the Latin American carnival.

A distinctive feature of participatory holidays is the predominance of mood, which can be characterized as "felt seriousness". This kind of psychological attitude is due to the feeling of familiarization with the highest values, belonging to the rhythms of the cosmos. Such an experience is associated with deep joy, however, this is a special "sacred" joy, not at all entertainment. Although the moment of entertainment is present here, it does not determine the main tone of the holiday.

Holidayandlaugh

For all the significance of other components of this culture, it should nevertheless be emphasized that a very special, key role in it is played by such a cultural and psychological phenomenon as laughter. This is directly due to the fact that the "zone of laughter" in the human community becomes a zone of contact. Here the contradictory and incompatible are united, it comes to life as a connection ”(M. Bakhtin). As the experience of history shows, laughter is one of the decisive factors contributing to overcoming huge, often spiritual distances between civilizational traditions that were originally alien to each other. Moreover, the role of laughter is greatest in that kind of holiday, which is characterized by the dominant ritual-laughter function - in the carnival. This circumstance determines the very significant significance of the holiday in general and the carnival in particular in the world dialogue of cultures.

Holidayandtradition

Specificityratiossocialandindividualinfestiveculture

The holiday as a special state of the cultural system is characterized by a very definite relationship between the individual and society, the individual and the collective: the social element in the holiday prevails over the individual. Many human activities can be successfully carried out alone, but never celebrated. As K. Zhigulsky wrote, expressing the general point of view of the researchers of this phenomenon, “holidays and celebrations ... always require the presence, participation of other people, they are a joint action, a common experience”

Holidayhowsocio-aestheticphenomenon

Everywhere the holiday also performs a specific socio-aesthetic function. “In the sphere of the holiday, aesthetic consciousness is born with its ability to appreciate the beautiful and cultivate the imagination, as well as a number of other abilities, including the ability to rejoice and laugh, which objectify themselves at first in syncretic actions, where dance, music, dramatic play, sports competition, etc. .P. are soldered to each other and do not yet claim independent significance - as art forms. (A.I. Mazaev). But even later, having stood out from the initially undivided syncretic whole, various types of art continue to influence the holiday and, in turn, are influenced by the festive element.

Mainstageshistoricalevolution « festive» culture. Waysmodelingtimeandstagesevolution « festive» culture

The holiday is inherent in all human communities - from primitive to modern. At the same time, a certain stage can be traced in the development of the phenomenon of the holiday. There are grounds to talk about one degree or another of the development of festive culture at various stages of social evolution. So, “we can only talk about the appearance of quite definite holidays dedicated to exact dates only starting with the emergence of high cultures,” however, they “contain all the elements of entertainment and entertainment that arose spontaneously even in the depths of primitive society ...” (Yu. Lips ).

The cyclic model of historical time is the basis of the holiday at the first, longest stage of its evolution. This situation fully corresponded to the dominance of the cyclic form of social movement in the vast majority of traditional societies. The festive culture at this stage is entirely determined by biocosmic cyclicity. All holidays, starting from primitive times and up to the emergence of the religion of the Old Testament prophets of Palestine, were structured according to the same scheme, characteristic of the mythological type of consciousness and attitude to the world. The content and essence of the holiday was to join the sacred time of the myth, the time of the first creation, "the first objects and first actions" (when the gods or cultural heroes created the universe and all its components. This time is outside the "usual" time of human life, in fact, outside the real time of human stories.

Emergence on the basis of the Christian type of consciousness in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries. the phenomenon of a secular holiday that is not directly related to the church calendar and the institution of the church. A revolutionary holiday is a special kind of secular holiday.

Holidayon thecontemporarystagehistoricaldevelopment

Changecharacterratiosritual-participatoryandritual-comicalfunctionsholidayonmeasurehishistoricalevolution

Although the holiday as a special cultural phenomenon is generally characterized by the predominance of the social principle over the individual, with the onset of the "modern era" a new universal trend begins to be observed: "the bifurcation of the once single festive culture", which is characterized by the inclusion in the content of this culture of "a personal, individualistic principle, earlier than it uncharacteristic, and at the same time the loss of national festivity, the collapse of integral sensuality. As a result, this lengthy process “has ... today, firstly, the complete nationalization of the holiday, turning it into an official parade celebration, and, secondly, the habitation of the holiday, or its intimization, which means that this form of culture goes to the other extreme. , into the sphere of domestic or intimate group life ”(A.I. Mazaev). As J. Duvigno noted, some of the most famous French authors who wrote about the phenomenon of the holiday, technical innovations of the 80s. The twentieth century, especially video, in many ways contributed to the increase in the importance of the "intimate and domestic" sphere in the festive culture.

Peculiaritiesholidayinvarioustypescivilizations. « Festive» culturein « classical» andin « border» civilizations. Civilizations « classical» and « border» type:criteriadistinctions

"Festive" culture differs significantly in different types of civilizations. In principle, civilizations can be classified on a variety of grounds. The basis of the typology of civilizations used in this special course is the criterion for the correlation of the principles (beginnings) of unity and diversity.

The specificity of "border" civilizations, in contrast to the "classical", is determined by the dominant diversity, which prevails over unity. The latter, however, is also quite real. However, in this case, there is no whole, relatively monolithic spiritual foundation; the religious and civilizational foundation consists of several qualitatively different parts, the connection between which is extremely weak or absent altogether. As a result, the entire civilizational structure is extremely unstable. Hellenistic and Byzantine historically belonged to the number of civilizations of the "border" type. Of the actually existing to this day, such civilizational communities include the Ibero-European1, Balkan, Russian-Eurasian and Latin American.

The predominance of diversity over unity is directly due to the fact that the reality of "frontier" civilizations is the reality of constant and extremely contradictory interaction of qualitatively different traditions and different-stage layers of the historical existence of the people separated by hermeneutic barriers. In this case, not just one “Big Idea” (which can be presented in a variety of variants), penetrating everything, cementing the diversity of the elements that make up civilization (ethnic, cultural, linguistic), but the very interaction of heterogeneous principles acts as an archetype underlying at the heart of the sociocultural system. An archetype of this kind appears in this case not as the result of interaction, which has become its invariant factor, "cast" into certain stable symbolic forms, but as a process of interaction.

Mainmanifestationsspecificscivilizationalbuildinginfestiveculture « classical» and « border» civilizations

The specific role of the natural factor in the civilizational systems of the “frontier” type is directly related to the fact that such systems are “embodied anxiety of the border” (Hegel) not only between civilizational traditions of different character, but also between civilization as a special way of human existence and barbarism. Here there is a direct parallel between the phenomena of civilizational "frontier" and the holiday in its historical incarnation, in which it appears as a "dive into chaos" (O. Paz), is a period of temporary rejection of the foundations of the existing social order. However, if in the conditions of "classical" civilizations of this kind, temporary disorder acts as a means of strengthening and updating the order, the existing normativity, the system of values, i.e. of the One that cements the foundation of civilization, the situation is different in the civilizational “borderland”.

A direct consequence of the presence of a single religious and value base in every "classical" civilization is an ontological balance, due to which the idea of measure comes to the fore in the system of values. This trend manifested itself with particular force within the framework of the direction of civilizational development, which is represented by the line "antiquity - Europe". The concept of measure in the Western tradition is inextricably linked with the idea of a norm in which laws are embodied (governing both the natural world and the human world), as well as harmony, which is possible only if the principles of measure and norm are implemented.

Since a holiday is always going beyond the existing norms, and in this case there is a direct structural parallel between the phenomena of a holiday and civilizational “borderline”.

Conclusion

holiday culture laughter tradition

Studying Traditions different countries allows a deeper understanding and study of the living conditions of people, their social status, the historical past of the country as a whole and its individual regions.

The nation becomes more friendly, despite the difference in religion. In some cases, there is an exchange of cultural information, when the culture of another country penetrates into the culture of one country, a holiday is borrowed and acquires modified features and traditions of celebration.

Listusedliterature

1. Pinyagin Yu.N. Great Britain: history, culture, way of life. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. University, 1996. - 296.

2. Satinova V.M. Reading and talking about Britain and the British. Mn.: Vysh. school, 1997. - 255 p.

3. Traditions, customs and habits. M.: INFRA-M, 2001. - 127 p.

4. Nesterova N.M. Regional Studies: UK. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2005. - 368 p.

5. Mikhailov N.N. Mikhailov N.M. Linguistic and regional studies of the USA - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2008. - 228 p.

6. Konstantin Vasiliev History of Great Britain: the Essentials. Ed. Avalon, ABC Classics, 2004 (softback, 128 p.)

7. Radovel V.A. Country Studies: USA Phoenix, 2008, 313 p.

8. Leonovich O.A. Country Studies Great Britain: A Textbook for High Schools Ed. 2nd, corrected, added / 3rd - KD University, 2005, 256 p.

9. Golitsinsky Yu.B. UK - Caro, 2007 - 480 p.

10. Petrukhina M.A. USA - history and modernity: tutorial on country studies. - Keeper, 2008, 480 p.

11. M. Bakhtin The work of Francois Rabelais and the folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance Languages of Slavic cultures 2008. 752 p.

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